Parikarmāṣṭaka - Fundamental Operations: Difference between revisions

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== Introduction ==
== Introduction ==
Arithmetic deals with calculations using numbers. Pāṭīgaṇita is the Samskrit word for arithmetic and geometry .Pāṭīgaṇita is formed by combining the words Pāṭī (slate) and gaṇita (mathematics). Since gaṇita was done using a board of a slate , it was called Pāṭīgaṇita. For all transactions using numbers will require the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, squaring etc. Ancient Indian Mathematicians mentioned eight fundamental operations together called as ''Parikarmāṣṭaka''.
Arithmetic deals with calculations using numbers. Pāṭīgaṇita is the Samskrit word for arithmetic and geometry .Pāṭīgaṇita  
 
{{Infobox person
| name              = Mathematical Operations
| image              = [[File:Arithmetic symbols.svg|Arithmetic_symbols|150px]]
}}
 
is formed by combining the words Pāṭī (slate) and gaṇita (mathematics). Since gaṇita was done using a board of a slate , it was called Pāṭīgaṇita. For all transactions using numbers will require the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, squaring etc. Ancient Indian Mathematicians mentioned eight fundamental operations together called as ''Parikarmāṣṭaka''.


== Definition ==
== Definition ==
''Parikarma'' means arithmetic operations and ''aṣṭaka'' means group of eight. ''Parikarmāṣṭaka'' signifies eight basic operations.  
''Parikarma'' means arithmetic operations and ''aṣṭaka'' means group of eight<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Primer to Bhāratīya Gaṇitam , Bhāratīya-Gaṇita-Praveśa- Part-1|publisher=Samskrit Promotion Foundation|year=2021|isbn=978-81-951757-2-7|location=New Delhi}}</ref>. ''Parikarmāṣṭaka'' signifies eight basic operations.  


The eight fundamental operations are  :
The eight fundamental operations are  :
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व्याप्तं समीक्ष्योपचयक्षयाभ्यां विद्यादिदं द्व्यात्मकमेव शास्त्रम् ॥ <small>(Āryabhaṭīya-bhāṣya in Gaṇitapāda, p.43)</small>
व्याप्तं समीक्ष्योपचयक्षयाभ्यां विद्यादिदं द्व्यात्मकमेव शास्त्रम् ॥ <small>(Āryabhaṭīya-bhāṣya in Gaṇitapāda, p.43)</small>


"All arithmetical operations resolve into two categories though usually considered to be four i.e, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The two main varieties are increase and decrease. Addition means to increase and subtraction means to decrease. These two varieties of operation penetrate the whole of mathematics.  Multiplication and evolution ( square etc,) are particular kinds of addition and division and involution( square root etc) are particular kinds of subtraction. Every mathematical operations involves increase or decrease. Hence the whole of this science should be known as consisting truly of these two operations only."
"All arithmetical operations resolve into two categories though usually considered to be four. The two main categories are increase and decrease. Addition is increase and subtraction is decrease. These two varieties of operations permeate the whole of mathematics.  Multiplication and evolution ( square etc,) are particular kinds of addition; and division and involution( square root etc) are particular kinds of subtraction. Indeed every mathematical operation will be recognised to consist of increase or decrease. Hence the whole of this science should be known as consisting truly of these two only."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Datta|first=Bibhutibhusan|title=History of Hindu Mathematics|last2=Narayan Singh|first2=Avadhesh|publisher=Asia Publishing House|year=1962|location=Mumbai}}</ref>


== Saṅkalana and Vyavakalana (Addition and Subtraction) ==
== Saṅkalana and Vyavakalana (Addition and Subtraction) ==
Addition is the first fundamental operation in mathematics. Subtraction is the reverse of addition.  
[[File:Addition.svg|alt=Addition|thumb|223x223px|Addition]]
Addition is the first fundamental operation in [[Development of Mathematics|mathematics]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fundamental-operations-integers|url=https://www.aplustopper.com/fundamental-operations-integers/}}</ref> Subtraction is the reverse of addition.
 
[[Aryabhata|Āryabhaṭa II]] (950) defines addition as " The making into one of several numbers is addition".  


Bhāskara II has mentioned about these operations in his work on Līlavatī.
Āryabhaṭa II (950) defines subtraction as " The taking out (of some number) from the ''sarvadhana'' (total) is subtraction. What remains is called ''śeṣa'' (remainder) ".
 
[[Bhāskara II]] has mentioned about these operations in his work on Līlavatī.


कार्यः क्रमादुत्क्रमतोऽथवाऽङ्कयोगो यथास्थानकमन्तरं  वा ॥ <small>(Līlavatī , vs.12, p.12)</small>
कार्यः क्रमादुत्क्रमतोऽथवाऽङ्कयोगो यथास्थानकमन्तरं  वा ॥ <small>(Līlavatī , vs.12, p.12)</small>
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Samskrita names for Addition - ''yoga'' (addition), ''saṃyoga'' (sum), ''saṃyojana'' (joining together) , ''saṃyuti'' (sum),  ''saṃyuti'' (sum), ''saṇkalana'' (making together).
Samskrita names for Addition - ''yoga'' (addition), ''saṃyoga'' (sum), ''saṃyojana'' (joining together) , ''saṃyuti'' (sum),  ''saṃyuti'' (sum), ''saṇkalana'' (making together).
Samskrita names for Subtraction - ''vyutkalita''(made apart), ''vyutkalana''(making apart), ''śodhana'' (clearing), ''pātana'' (causing to fall),      ''viyoga'' (separation) , ''śeṣa'' (residue) and ''anatara'' (difference) have been used for the remainder.


== Guṇana (Multiplication) ==
== Guṇana (Multiplication) ==
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<math>2\quad X\quad 4 = 2+2+2+2 = 8</math>
<math>2\quad X\quad 4 = 2+2+2+2 = 8</math>


Samskrita names for Multiplication - āhati (multiplication) ghāta (product), [guṇana , hanana, hati,  vadha] (multiplication).
Samskrita names for Multiplication - āhati (multiplication), ghāta (product), [guṇana , hanana, hati,  vadha] (multiplication).
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+
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|8
|8
|-
|-
|guṇya
|↑
|
|
|guṇaka  
|↑
|
|↑
|-
|guṇya
(multiplicand)
|
|guṇaka
(multiplier)
|
|
|guṇana-phala
|guṇana-phala
(Result of Multiplication)
|}
=== Methods of Multiplication : ===
* Rūpa-guṇana - Direct Method
* Khaṇḍa-guṇana - Split Method
* Bhakta-guṇana - Factor Method
* Sthāna-vibhāga-guṇana - Place wise multiplication
* Iṣṭonayug-guṇana (Adding or subtracting a desired number)
==== Rūpa-guṇana - Direct method : ====
Here the tables of multiplier should be known. Multiplier is taken as a whole.Each digit of multiplicand is multiplied by the multiplier to get the product. In this method, the multiplier is taken a whole since it is small.
Example: 234 X 5 =   
(1)  (2)
2    3    4
x            5 =
1 1    7    0
==== Khaṇḍa-guṇana - Split Method : ====
Here the multiplier is split into sum of two numbers . This is represented as below.
a X b = a X (c + d) = (a X c) + (a X d) where b = c + d.
This is the distributive property of multiplication over addition.
Example:  234 X 16 = 234 X (10 + 6 ) = (234 X 10) + (234 X 6) = 2340 + 1404 = 3744
==== Bhakta-guṇana - Factor Method : ====
Here the multiplier is split into product of two numbers. This is represented as below.
a X b = a X (c X d) = (a X c) X d where b = c X d
Example: 234 X 16 = 234 X (8 X 2) = (234 X 8) X 2 = 1872 X 2 = 3744
==== Sthāna-vibhāga-guṇana - Place wise multiplication : ====
[[File:Poser-une-multiplication.gif|alt=Multiplication|thumb|195x195px|Multiplication]]
Multiply the multiplicand by each digit of the multiplier separately. Place them appropriately one below the other . Add those numbers. This method is the standard method of doing multiplication.
Example: 234 X 16
2 3 4
X    1 6 =
1 4 0 4
+  2 3 4    =
3 7 4 4
==== Iṣṭonayug-guṇana (Adding or subtracting a desired number) : ====
The Samskrit word Iṣṭonayug is a compound word consisting of ''iṣṭa ,  ūna ,  yuk''  which means respectively 'desired, minus and plus'.
इष्टोनयुक्तेन गुणेन निघ्नोऽभीष्टघ्नगुण्यान्वितवर्जितो वा । <small>(Līlāvatī, vs.16, p.15)</small>
"Add or subtract any convenient number to the multiplier and multiply it. Then multiply by the added or subtracted number and    subtract or add this product from the previous one."
Add any desired number to the multiplier to get a convenient round figure. Then multiply the multiplicand with the round figure and the added number. Then subtract the products to get the final answer.
or
Subtract any desired number from the multiplier to get a convenient round figure. Then multiply the multiplicand with the round figure and the subtracted number. Then add the products to get the final answer.
Example:
234 X 16 = 234 X (20 - 4) = (234 X 20) - (234 X 4) = 4680 -  936 = 3744
234 X 16 = 234 X (10 + 6) = (234 x 10) + (234 x 6) = 2340  + 1404 = 3744
==== Tatstha-guṇana ====
Ancient Indian Mathematicians enhanced the several methods for multiplication to perform multiplication more efficiently and easily. Tatstha-guṇana is one of those methods making multiplication involving three or more digits faster. Indian Mathematicians like Śrīdhara, [[Mahāvīra]], Śripati have mentioned this method. Tatstha-guṇana is also known as vajrābhyāsa.
Gaṇeśa (c.1545) explains Tatstha-guṇana  as "That method of multiplication in which the numbers stand in the same place is called  Tatstha-guṇana. It is as follows: after setting the multiplier under the multiplicand multiply unit by unit  and the note the result underneath. Then as in vajrābhyāsa multiply unit by ten and ten by unit, add together and set down the result in the line. Next multiply unit by hundred, hundred by unit and ten by ten, add together and set down the result as before; and so on with the rest of the digits. This being done, the line of results is the product.".
This method was known to the Hindu scholars of the 8th century, or earlier. The method seems to have travelled to Arabia and thence was transmitted to Europe, where it occurs in Pacioli's ''Suma'' and is stated to be "more fantastic and ingenious than the others."
Gaṇeśa has also remarked that "this (method) is very fantastic and cannot be learnt by the dull without the traditional oral instructions."
'''Example''' : Multiply 234 and 15
2 3 5                                                     
0 1 5    X
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|Hundreds
|Tens
|Unit
|-
|2
|3
|4
|-
|0
|1
|5
|}
# Multiply unit digit by unit digit.  4 X 5 = 20
# Multiply the unit digit by tens digit and tens digit by unit digit and add them.  (3 X 5) + (4 X 1) = 15 + 4 = 19
# Multiply unit digit by hundreds digit, hundreds digit by unit digit and tens digits by tens digit and add them.                                      (2 x 5) + (4 X 0) + (3 X 1) =  10 + 0 + 3 = 13
# Multiply hundreds digit by tens digit and tens digit by hundreds digit and add them. (2 X 1) + (3 X 0) = 2 + 0 = 2 = 02
# Multiply hundred digit by hundreds digit. 2 X 0 = 0 = 00
# Place the results of each step as shown and add.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|1.
|
|
|
|
|2
|0
|-
|2.
|
|
|
|1
|9
|
|-
|3.
|
|
|1
|3
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|-
|4.
|
|0
|2
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|-
|5.
|0
|0
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|'''0'''
|'''0'''
|'''3'''
|'''5'''
|'''1'''
|'''0'''
|}
The result is 3510.
== Bhājana (Division) ==
[[File:Division 13-4.png|alt=Division|thumb|Division]]
Division is considered as the inverse of multiplication.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Division-as-The-Inverse-of-Multiplication|url=https://www.math-only-math.com/Division-as-The-Inverse-of-Multiplication.html}}</ref>
Samskrita names for Division - ''bhāgahāra'' (divide) , ''bhājana'' (break), ''harana'' (take away), ''chedana'' (cut).
The dividend is termed as ''bhājya'' or ''hārya'', the divisor is called ''bhājaka'', ''bhāgahara'' or ''hara.'' The quotient is called ''labhdi'' (the obtained) or ''labdha'' .Bhāskara II has mentioned the rule for division as:
भाज्याद्धरः शुद्ध्यति यद्गुणः स्यादन्त्यात्फलं तत्खलु भागहारे।                                                                                                                                      समेन केनाप्यपवर्त्य हारभाज्यौ भवेद्वा सति सम्भवे तु ॥ (Līlāvatī, vs.18,p.18)
"Starting from the last digit of the divided, the (maximum) number of times by which divisor can be subtracted,that indeed is the quotient (result of division). If possible, divide after cancelling some common factor in the divisor and the dividend."
Bhāskara II mentioned along with the regular method of division, he has described the method of removing the common factors of the divisor and dividend to obtain the result.
Example  <math>\frac{748}{108} = \frac{748/4}{108/4} = \frac{187}{27} = \frac{Bhajya }{Bhajaka}= Labdhi(6)</math>
== Varga (Square) ==
Samskrita name for square - ''varga'' or ''kṛti .'' The word ''varga'' means "rows" or bunch of similar things. But in Mathematics it denotes the square power and also the square figure or its area. Aryabhaṭa I says : "A square figure of four equal sides and the (number representing its) area called varga. The product of two equal quantities is also varga."
[[Bhāskara I]] has given a method for finding square as follows:
"According to the rule of squaring, square the last digit (leftmost), multiply by twice the last digit all the remaining digits, repeat the process by shifting one digit to the right (till the first digit is arrived)." Example : Square of 6387= 40793769
After step 4.1 add the numbers on each column. wherever there are two digits. unit digit to be retained. digit at tenth place to be carried to next column on the left side and added . Here also unit digit to be retained. digit at tenth place to be carried to next column on the left side and added ...... so on.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!
!40
!7
!9
!3
!7
!6
!9
|-
!Step
!
!39
!15
!27
!23
!7
!6
!9
|-
|4.1
|7<sup>2</sup>
|
|
|
|
|
|4
|9
|-
|3.2
|2 x 8 x 7
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|
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|1
|1
|2
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|-
|3.1
|8<sup>2</sup>
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|6
|4
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|-
|2.3
|2 x 3 x 7
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|4
|2
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|2.2
|2 x 3 x 8
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|4
|8
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|2.1
|3<sup>2</sup>
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|9
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|-
|1.4
|2 x 6 x 7
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|8
|4
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|1.3
|2 x 6 x 8
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|9
|6
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|-
|1.2
|2 x 6 x 3
|3
|6
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|-
|1.1
|6<sup>2</sup>
|36
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|-
|1
|Given Number
|6
|3
|8
|7
|
|
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|-
|2
|Shift Number to the right
|
|<s>6</s>
|3
|8
|7
|
|
|-
|3
|Shift Number to the right
|
|
|<s>6</s>
|<s>3</s>
|8
|7
|
|-
|4
|Shift Number to the right
|
|
|
|<s>6</s>
|<s>3</s>
|<s>8</s>
|7
|}
== Varga-mūla (Square Root) ==
[[File:Square root of 9.svg|alt=Square and Square root|thumb|200x200px|Square and Square root]]
Samskrita name for Square root is ''Varga-mūla''.  ''mūla , pada''  means root  in Hindu terminology.  The word karanī is found  in the Śulbasūtras as a term for the square root.
In Āryabhaṭīya the method of finding the square root is given as " Always divide the even place by twice the square-root (upto the preceding odd place); after having subtracted from the odd place the square (of the quotient) , the quotient put