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{{Short description|Investigation of failures associated with legal intervention}}
{{More footnotes|date=May 2014}}

{{ForensicScience|disciplines|image=Dent cassee sur une roue spiro-conique.jpg}}
'''Forensic engineering''' has been defined as ''"the investigation of failures - ranging from serviceability to catastrophic - which may lead to legal activity, including both civil and criminal".''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Forensic Engineering - a professional approach to investigation|last=Neale (Ed)|first=B S|publisher=Thomas Telford|year=1999|location=London|pages=i}}</ref> It includes the investigation of [[material science|materials]], [[product (business)|products]], [[structure]]s or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing [[personal injury]], damage to property or economic loss. The consequences of failure may give rise to action under either criminal or civil law including but not limited to health and safety legislation, the laws of contract and/or [[product liability]] and the laws of [[tort]]. The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. Generally, the purpose of a [[Forensics|forensic]] [[engineering]] investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an [[accident]]. It can also involve investigation of [[intellectual property]] claims, especially [[patent]]s. In the US, forensic engineers require a professional engineering license from each state.

==History==
As the field of engineering has evolved over time, so has the field of forensic engineering. Early examples include investigation of [[bridge failure]]s such as the [[Tay Bridge disaster|Tay rail bridge disaster]] of 1879 and the [[Dee bridge disaster]] of 1847. Many early rail accidents prompted the invention of [[tensile test]]ing of samples and [[fractography]] of failed components.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History Of Metallography: The Development Of Ideas On The Structure Of Metals Before 1890 |last=Smith |first=Cyril Stanley|author-link=Cyril Stanley Smith|orig-year=1960|publisher=MIT Press |year=1988|isbn=9780262691208}}</ref>

==Investigation==
Vital to the field of forensic engineering is the process of investigating and collecting data related to the: materials, products, structures or components that failed. This involves: inspections, collecting evidence, measurements, developing models, obtaining exemplar products, and performing experiments. Often, testing and measurements are conducted in an [[Independent testing laboratory]] or other reputable unbiased laboratory.

==Analysis==
[[Failure mode and effects analysis]] (FMEA) and [[fault tree analysis]] methods also examine product or process failure in a structured and systematic way, in the general context of [[safety engineering]]. However, all such techniques rely on accurate reporting of [[failure rate]]s, and precise identification, of the failure modes involved.

There is some common ground between forensic science and forensic engineering, such as scene of crime and scene of accident analysis, integrity of the evidence and court appearances. Both disciplines make extensive use of optical and [[scanning electron microscope]]s, for example. They also share common use of [[spectroscopy]] ([[infrared]], [[ultraviolet]], and [[nuclear magnetic resonance]]) to examine critical evidence. [[Radiography]] using [[X-ray]]s (such as [[X-ray computed tomography]]), or [[neutron]]s is also very useful in examining thick products for their internal defects before destructive examination is attempted. Often, however, a simple [[Magnifying glass|hand lens]] may reveal the cause of a particular problem.

[[Trace evidence]] is sometimes an important factor in reconstructing the sequence of events in an accident. For example, tire burn marks on a road surface can enable vehicle speeds to be estimated, when the brakes were applied and so on. Ladder feet often leave a trace of movement of the ladder during a slip and may show how the accident occurred. When a product fails for no obvious reason, [[scanning electron microscope|SEM]] and [[Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy]] (EDX) performed in the microscope can reveal the presence of aggressive chemicals that have left traces on the fracture or adjacent surfaces. Thus an [[polyoxymethylene plastic|acetal resin]] water pipe joint suddenly failed and caused substantial damages to a building in which it was situated. Analysis of the joint showed traces of chlorine, indicating a [[stress corrosion cracking]] failure mode. The failed fuel pipe junction mentioned above showed traces of [[sulfur]] on the fracture surface from the [[sulfuric acid]], which had initiated the crack.

Extracting physical evidence from digital photography is a major technique used in forensic accident reconstruction. [[Match moving|Camera matching]], [[photogrammetry]], and [[Image rectification|photo rectification]] techniques are used to create three-dimensional and top-down views from the two-dimensional photos typically taken at an accident scene. Overlooked or undocumented evidence for accident reconstruction can be retrieved and quantified as long as photographs of such evidence are available. By using photographs of the accident scene including the vehicle, "lost" evidence can be recovered and accurately determined.<ref>[http://www.veritecheng.com/white-paper-forensic-accident-reconstruction/ Extracting Physical Evidence from Digital Photographs for use in Forensic Accident Reconstruction], David Danaher, P.E., Jeff Ball, Ph.D., P.E., and Mark Kittel, P.E, 6-15-12.</ref>

[[Forensic materials engineering]] involves methods applied to specific materials, such as [[metal]]s, [[glass]]es, [[ceramic]]s, [[composite material|composites]] and [[polymer]]s.

==Organizations==

The National Academy of Forensic Engineers (NAFE) was founded in 1982 by Marvin M. Specter, P.E., L.S., Paul E. Pritzker, P.E., and William A. Cox Jr., P.E. to identify and bring together professional engineers having qualifications and expertise as practicing forensic engineers to further their continuing education and promote high standards of professional ethics and excellence of practice. It seeks to improve the practice, elevate the standards, and advance the cause of forensic engineering. Full membership in the Academy is limited to Registered Professional Engineers who are also members of the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE). They must also be members in an acceptable grade of a recognized major technical engineering society. NAFE also offers Affiliate grades of membership to those who do not yet qualify for Member grade.<ref>[http://www.nafe.org], National Academy of Forensic Engineers website.</ref>

==Examples==
[[Image:Plate7new.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Failed fuel pipe at right from a road traffic accident.]]
[[Image:Plate4new.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Close-up of the broken fuel pipe from a road traffic accident.]]
[[Image:Broken fuel pipe.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Close-up of the broken fuel pipe.]]
The broken fuel pipe shown at left caused a serious accident when [[diesel fuel]] poured out from a van onto the road. A following car skidded and the driver was seriously injured when she collided with an oncoming [[lorry]]. [[Scanning electron microscopy]] or SEM showed that the [[nylon]] connector had fractured by [[stress corrosion cracking]] (SCC) due to a small leak of [[battery acid]]. Nylon is susceptible to [[hydrolysis]] when in contact with [[sulfuric acid]], and only a small leak of acid would have sufficed to start a brittle crack in the [[injection moulded]] [[nylon 6,6]] connector by SCC. The crack took about 7 days to grow across the diameter of the tube. The fracture surface showed a mainly brittle surface with striations indicating progressive growth of the crack across the diameter of the pipe. Once the crack had penetrated the inner bore, fuel started leaking onto the road.

The nylon 6,6 had been attacked by the following reaction, which was catalyzed by the acid:
:[[image:amide hydrolysis.svg]]

[[Diesel fuel]] is especially hazardous on road surfaces because it forms a thin, oily film that cannot be easily seen by drivers. It is much like [[black ice]] in its slipperiness, so skids are common when diesel leaks occur. The insurers of the van driver admitted liability and the injured driver was compensated.

==Applications==
Most manufacturing models will have a forensic component that monitors early failures to improve quality or efficiencies. Insurance companies use forensic engineers to prove liability or nonliability. Most engineering disasters ([[structural failure]]s such as bridge and building collapses) are subject to forensic investigation by engineers experienced in forensic methods of investigation. [[Rail crashes]], [[aviation accidents and incidents|aviation accidents]], and some [[car accident|automobile accidents]] are investigated by forensic engineers in particular where component failure is suspected. Furthermore, appliances, consumer products, medical devices, structures, industrial machinery, and even simple hand tools such as hammers or chisels can warrant investigations upon incidents causing injury or property damages. The failure of [[medical device]]s is often [[life-critical system|safety-critical]] to the user, so reporting failures and analysing them is particularly important. The environment of the body is complex, and [[implant (medicine)|implants]] must both survive this environment, and not leach potentially toxic impurities. Problems have been reported with [[breast implant]]s, [[heart valve]]s, and [[catheter]]s, for example.

Failures that occur early in the life of a new product are vital information for the manufacturer to improve the product. [[New product development]] aims to eliminate defects by testing in the factory before launch, but some may occur during its early life. Testing products to simulate their behavior in the external environment is a difficult skill, and may involve [[accelerated life testing]] for example. The worst kind of defect to occur after launch is a [[life-critical system|safety-critical]] defect, a defect that can endanger life or limb. Their discovery usually leads to a [[product recall]] or even complete withdrawal of the product from the market. Product defects often follow the [[bathtub curve]], with high initial failures, a lower rate during regular life, followed by another rise due to wear-out. National standards, such as those of [[ASTM International|ASTM]] and the [[BSI Group|British Standards Institute]], and [[International standard|International Standard]]s can help the designer in increasing product integrity.

==Historic examples==
[[Image:Dee bridge disaster.jpg|thumb|right|350px|[[Dee bridge disaster]].]]
There are many examples of forensic methods used to investigate accidents and disasters, one of the earliest in the modern period being the fall of the [[Dee bridge]] at [[Chester]], [[England]]. It was built using [[cast iron]] [[girder]]s, each of which was made of three very large castings dovetailed together. Each girder was strengthened by [[wrought iron]] bars along the length. It was finished in September 1846, and opened for local traffic after approval by the first Railway Inspector, General Charles Pasley. However, on 24 May 1847, a local train to [[Ruabon]] fell through the bridge. The accident resulted in five deaths (three passengers, the train guard, and the locomotive fireman) and nine serious injuries. The bridge had been designed by [[Robert Stephenson]], and he was accused of negligence by a local [[inquest]].

Although strong in compression, cast iron was known to be brittle in tension or bending. On the day of the accident, the bridge deck was covered with track ballast to prevent the oak beams supporting the track from catching fire, imposing a heavy extra load on the girders supporting the bridge and probably exacerbating the accident. Stephenson took this precaution because of a recent fire on the Great Western Railway at Uxbridge, London, where Isambard Kingdom Brunel's bridge caught fire and collapsed.

One of the first major inquiries conducted by the newly formed [[Railway Inspectorate]] was conducted by Captain Simmons of the [[Royal Engineers]], and his report suggested that repeated flexing of the girder weakened it substantially. He examined the broken parts of the main girder, and confirmed that the girder had broken in two places, the first break occurring at the center. He tested the remaining girders by driving a locomotive across them, and found that they deflected by several inches under the moving load. He concluded that the design was flawed, and that the wrought iron trusses fixed to the girders did not reinforce the girders at all, which was a conclusion also reached by the jury at the inquest. Stephenson's design had depended on the wrought iron trusses to strengthen the final structures, but they were anchored on the cast iron girders themselves, and so deformed with any load on the bridge. Others (especially Stephenson) argued that the train had derailed and hit the girder, the [[impact force]] causing it to [[fracture]]. However, [[Witness|eyewitnesses]] maintained that the girder broke first and the fact that the [[locomotive]] remained on the track showed otherwise.

==Publications==
Product failures are not widely published in the [[academic literature]] or trade literature, partly because companies do not want to advertise their problems. However, it then denies others the opportunity to improve product design so as to prevent further accidents. However, a notable exception to the reluctance to publish is the journal ''Engineering Failure Analysis'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Engineering Failure Analysis {{!}} Journal {{!}} ScienceDirect.com by Elsevier|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/engineering-failure-analysis|access-date=2021-06-24|website=www.sciencedirect.com|language=en-us}}</ref> published in affiliation with the [[European Structural Integrity Society]], which publishes case studies of a wide range of different products, failing under different circumstances. There are also an increasing number of textbooks becoming available.

Another notable publication, dealing with failures of buildings, bridges, and other structures, is the ''Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities'',<ref>[http://scitation.aip.org/cfo/ Scitation.aip.org]</ref>
which is published by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]], under the umbrella of its Technical Council on Forensic Engineering.<ref>[http://tcfe.asce.org// tcfe.asce.org/]</ref>

==See also==
{{div col}}
*{{annotated link|Traffic collision}}
*{{annotated link|Catastrophic failure}}
*{{annotated link|Evidence packaging}}
*{{annotated link|Failure analysis}}
*{{annotated link|Forensic chemistry}}
*{{annotated link|Forensic electrical engineering}}
*{{annotated link|Forensic identification}}
*{{annotated link|Forensic materials engineering}}
*{{annotated link|Forensic photography}}
*{{annotated link|Forensic polymer engineering}}
*{{annotated link|Forensic science}}
*{{annotated link|Fractography}}
*{{annotated link|Stress–strain analysis}}
*{{annotated link|Structural analysis}}
*{{annotated link|Structural integrity and failure}}
*{{annotated link|Trace evidence}}
*{{annotated link|Traffic collision reconstruction}}
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
*''Introduction to Forensic Engineering'' (The Forensic Library) by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (1992).
*''Forensic Engineering Investigation'' by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (2000).
*''Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies'' by Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken Reynolds, CRC Press (2004).
*Peter R Lewis and Sarah Hainsworth, ''Fuel Line Failure from stress corrosion cracking'', Engineering Failure Analysis,13 (2006) 946–962...
*National Academy of Forensic Engineers
*Introduction to Forensic Engineering. OpenLearn. [[Open University]]
*Forensic Engineering by Origin and Cause
; Journals
*The Journal Engineering Failure Analysis
*Forensic Engineering. ''Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers''

{{Engineering fields}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Engineering disciplines]]
[[Category:Materials science]]
[[Category:Engineering failures]]
[[Category:Forensic disciplines|Engineering]]

Forensic engineering - Revision history

Indicwiki: 1 revision imported from :alpha:Forensic_engineering

alpha>Sarika: Created page with "{{Short description|Investigation of failures associated with legal intervention}} {{More footnotes|date=May 2014}} {{ForensicScience|disciplines|image=Dent cassee sur une ro..."